Project Management Control and Objectives

Question: Talk about the Project Management Control and Objectives. Answer: Presentation The undertaking is created in connection with building up a legitimate system for the conversation help on Assignment 1. To deal with the venture is one of the most vital assignment, it is difficult to make an end on the single piece of paper. Different assessments and the investigation are appended with any sort of undertaking. It is necessitated that fitting data ought to be accumulated in connection with the undertaking the executives angles in order to guarantee that the correct heading ought to be given to the task which is being begun by the organization. Dealing with the tanks and keeping up them in a legitimate manner will require an appropriate speculation and contributing required gigantic supports which ought to be arranged in a fitting manner. The undertaking is being created in fixation with the oil organization which is intending to guarantee that unleaded petroleum stockpiling tanks could be overseen and the pointless costs that are being paid by the organization could be decreased. Different task the board procedures and data related with the cost that would enjoy the undertaking will be benefited in this report so appropriate course could be given to the organization to guarantee that it could prevail with regards to dealing with the fix and the repaint work. Spending plan Setting up the spending plan is the first and the preeminent angles appended with any task. Spending plan gives a fitting heading to the organization with the assistance of which the task could be overseen in a legitimate manner (Mauboussin, 2012). To guarantee that the fix and the repaint of the tanks of the organization could be viably overseen it is necessitated that appropriate arrangement of spending plan ought to be created with the impact of which organization could prevail in its arrangements. Financial plan Points of interest Costs $ Support of the Tanks 1 2500 Support of the Tanks 2 2500 Support of the Tanks 2 2500 Paint of every one of the four tanks 5000 Work Expenses 2500 Pipeline Maintenance 2500 Venture Management Team 2500 Material Expenses 2500 Ceaseless testing of spillage and nature of work 2500 All out $ 25000 The spending that is being created will help the organization in dealing with the work in a fitting way. Setting up the best possible plans and assessing all the viewpoints which requires legitimate venture and enjoyed the persistent improvement process. Improving all the viewpoints enjoy the venture will help in lessening the costs and successfully handling the task the board angles. Enjoying such sort of viewpoints helps in proceeding onward the way of progress and manageability (Povilaitis, 2014). Recognizing the Keymilestones for the undertaking expectations Recognizing the achievements for the undertaking expectations is one of the best techniques which could be utilized by the organization to deal with the venture (Young , 2013). An achievement causes the organization to give a set bearing the assistance of which it could deal with within perspectives related with the task. This procedure causes the association to make the unmistakable and achievable plans and furthermore helps the association in checking the advancement. Building up the achievements for the undertaking helps in spreading out all the desperation of every single step of the task. For setting fruitful achievement for the venture it is necessitated that the association should center upon specific angles like: The achievements which are created by the organization ought to be explicit. Building up the particular achievements for the organization will give an appropriate arrangement of emotionally supportive network. It is necessitated that the organization ought to build up the comprehension with the perspective that the undertaking expectations which ought to be created ought to be compact and give the better help to the organization with the assistance of which association could support to accomplish all the task objectives (Bernroider, et. al., 2011). It is necessitated that the task achievements which ought to be created by the association ought to be feasible and ought to get finished inside the time periods required by the organization. Doing so will assist the associations with processing the work in an appropriate way and complete the venture inside the spending which is being created by the association. A legitimate beginning time ought to be created for every single movement and it is likewise required to set the cutoff times with the impact of which work could be finished by keeping them on needs and guaranteeing that the work could be finished inside the time span will help the association in finishing the fix and repaint work properly (?iutien?, et. al., 2012). It is necessitated that the dynamic achievement ought to be created and the straight way and movement ought to be created by the organization. Fix and repaint work ought to be done in a legitimate way since it requires gigantic venture and furthermore organization won't have the option to bear the cost of any break or circle in the undertaking the executives perspectives. Noteworthy is one of the most significant perspectives joined with the venture, in the event that if the undertaking achievements which are set by the organization are not critical them the organization won't have the option to finish the task inside the courses of events (Collins, 2011). It is necessitated that the achievement which are set by the organization ought not be excessively explicit or excessively little or they ought to be two major in light of the fact that such kind of achievements could directly affect the task which could make an immense misfortune the organization. Gantt. Outline Exercises Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 Week 4 Week 5 Week 6 Week 7 Week 8 Week 9 Get citation from fix organizations (4 days) Obtain material (3 Days) Select required staff (2 Days) Start fix and repaint work of tank 1 (6 Days) Start fix and repaint work of tank 2 (12 Days) Start fix and repaint work of tank 3 (20 Days) Testing of spillage and nature of work (3 Days) This Gantt outline will help in finishing the task in a fitting way and will help in planning and setting the things on needs and will guarantee to offer an appropriate help framework for the undertaking with the assistance of which organization could continue in the market (Fewings, 2013). Assets Requiredfor Succesfull Completion of the Project There are different arrangement of assets which are required to be engaged upon by the organization in order to guarantee that the venture could be finished inside the necessary time and with the strategies which are required to be finished inside the set time structure (Movahedian Attar, et. al., 2013). Applying the fitting arrangement of task advancement procedures and assets in order to process the undertaking is one of the most significant perspectives connected with the administration of the venture in a proper way. Secure material are required so the venture could be finished, it is necessitated that legitimate arrangement of material ought to be utilized like paints, and the fix materials like solid, takes, cements and so forth. Fix and the repaint of the tanks necessitates that all the material which is being utilized ought to be utilized in a legitimate amount just as appropriate quality (Phillips, et. al., 2010). Nature of the material ought to be kept up on the grounds that it was the matter of the profoundly fire capable items. Organization is putting an enormous sum in the upkeep of the task in order to fix and repaint the tanks so it is necessitated that legitimate arrangement of material ought to be utilized to finish the undertaking in an appropriate way. Arrangement of the necessary staff is another significant viewpoints which ought to be engaged upon by the association (Yang, 2013). To guarantee that the venture could be finished inside the necessary time period organization ought to contribute on the task supervisory crew which could create suitable designs for the undertaking. It is necessitated that the organization should enlist and select the staff on contract premise so that after consummation of a similar organization could guarantee to give successful arrangement of help. Select the staff on the agreement premise on a specific venture guarantees that the organization could lessen the superfluous cost which should pay by the organization to the staff which are employed by it (Heagney, 2012). Name suitable number of the staff individuals inside for the specific timeframe guarantees that the organization could continue in finishing the undertaking inside the necessary cutoff times and inside the specific spending which is bein g arranged by the association. It is necessitated that the association should utilize the basic way strategy to pick adages proper approach to finish the venture, Critical way technique is one of the strategy which helps the organization in picking most fitting way in order to finish the errands in the best just as reasonable manner (Mauboussin, 2012). It helps in guaranteeing that the superfluous costs of the association could get diminished and the organization could prevail to deal with the work in best just as less complex way. Legitimate assessments ought to be finished by the undertaking supervisory group in connection with picking the best way to finish the task inside the necessary cutoff times (Povilaitis, 2014). Fix and repaint work of the tanks ought to be done in which it is necessitated that the organization should center after building up the most fitting way in order to finish the undertakings. Bifurcating the venture into sub assignments will guarantee to give most proper way to finish it. It is necessitated that the association should center upon equivalent distribu

Cost Analysis Within The Zara Company Marketing Essay

Cost Analysis Within The Zara Company Marketing Essay Portray how Zara utilizes innovation to improve operational responsiveness to client desires, and simultaneously to diminish costs in specific territories. Zaras principle methodology is to offer a snappy response to end purchaser requests and foresee customer inclines through data innovation and HR. It works based on overwhelming in reverse vertical coordination, working its way from the end purchaser right back to the assembling and appropriation. It guarantees an exceptionally close control of creation through basic and successful IT frameworks just as a cutting edge conveyance focus (DC.) It understands cost improvement on its essential things for creation and furthermore time streamlining as far as speed to market of its style things utilizing innovation. Zara adjusted to patterns and contrasts across business sectors by connecting routinely with the head supervisors utilizing the PDA and telephone frameworks to get refreshes on client criticism, style sense and so on. The Point of Sale framework (POS) in the store PCs likewise gave significant deals information to the dissemination community which had a portable following framewor k that docked balancing pieces of clothing in fitting bar coded regions. The different pieces of clothing were given Stock Keeping Units (SKUs) and requests were set from the hand-held PCs in the stores two times every week or more, to the dissemination community where if specific things were hard to come by, allotment choices were made based on recorded deals levels and different contemplations. After the requests were affirmed, the distribution center gave records for conveyance to the stores. Zara configuration groups followed client inclinations and utilized deals data, for example, deals investigation, store patterns and item life cycle data from the head supervisors, in view of an utilization data framework to transmit rehash orders and new plans to inside/outer providers and the DC. The structure groups in this manner crossed over marketing and the backend of the creation procedure and they built up the correct items inside the season to satisfy customer needs. Zaras item adv ancement groups went to high form tolls and shows to decipher the most recent regular patterns into the structures. Subsequently, a very quick pace of operational responsiveness to clients was kept up and the DC was even more a spot to stock than simply for capacity. Innovation additionally helped monitor Zaras costs. By utilizing the POS frameworks in store PCs, handheld PDA gadgets for head supervisors and telephone frameworks, precise data in regards to orders required were transmitted to the DC. The SKUs guaranteed exactness as far as which items should have been delivered and in what amounts and the DCs could utilize this data and input from the structure groups to make requests of the correct amount of every sort of item. In this way, stock expenses were extremely low, runs were constrained and creation costs were kept up at entirely sensible levels notwithstanding the huge number of new things that are constantly delivered. Zaras industrial facilities were likewise vigorously computerized, concentrated by article of clothing type and concentrated on the capital escalated portions of the creation procedure, similar to design structure and cutting just as definite completing and investigation. A Just-in-time framework was introduced in a joi nt effort with Toyota in these plants and this aided in quicker fruition of work and controlling of expenses through ceaseless improvement forms. The executives Information System innovation assumes a urgent job in Zaras client responsiveness and cost control measures. From what you find for the situation, does Zara cost to showcase or based on different components? Zara consistently followed a market based estimating technique. In every nation, Zara constantly positioned more spotlight available costs (neighborhood estimating levels) as opposed to on its own expenses to figure costs of things specifically advertises. These figures were later overlaid on quotes that incorporated all contemplations, for example, separation, taxes, and burdens, etc to see whether the potential market could accomplish benefit in a year or two of opening the primary store. Zara followed an alternate valuing technique in every nation, for instance, in Italy and Paris the center was greater quality arranged thus the cost of similar things were a lot higher, nonetheless, in Germany where customers are value touchy the things were lesser estimated. This figured in the diverse advertising procedure followed in every nation. Zara controlled its expenses through its creation and conveyance forms and was situated in numerous nations as high style at moderate costs which how ever were midway decided, much lower than contender costs for tantamount items in its significant markets. Rate edges despite everything held up, this was conceivable as a result of the immediate efficiencies of short, vertically incorporated gracefully chain, diminished promoting costs, and markdown prerequisites. Hence Zara contended at sensible costs through a cost authority methodology, finishing Porters conventional system through separated items and wide division. Zaras clients in numerous nations bore the additional expenses of providing the things from Spain however the costs were showcase based, for instance, costs were 40% higher in Northern Europe and 70% higher in the Americas than in Spain. This could be seen on the pieces of clothing sticker price which was a chart book to the clients. These more significant expenses outside Spain influenced Zaras situating abroad as top of the line rather than mid market extend items to all the more likely approve the value contrasts. Like in Mexico where the objective customer base is restricted, it is equipped towards the upper and white collar class that knows style. In addition, as in Europe, the counterfeit shortage that Zara makes of its items in its stores encourage the clients to follow through on the cost and purchase as opposed to endure it. Markdowns are exceptionally low for Zara in Europe and somewhere else, 15-20% of its deals when contrasted with 30-40% for its European friends. Zara do esn't totally contend on premise of cost as the typical Zara client isn't excessively value touchy; rather, it contends on style and its fast reaction capacity. Zara (2010) has quite recently propelled an on-line, e-retail appropriation service.â Â For an attire retailer what are the favorable circumstances and drawbacks of online distribution?â Can Zara make it work? Inditex has since quite a while ago utilized the web to advance its different lines and corporate picture and is likewise well known on Facebook, where it has 4.5m fans. Its Smartphone application, propelled about a year back, has been downloaded by 2m individuals. Zara can without much of a stretch make its online e-retail circulation administration work effectively. Nature with the Zara stores accordingly gives name acknowledgment to the online retail website, and the blend of client information accumulated by the store and the online retail webpage (through Google Analytics, for instance) could prompt considerable customized advertising endeavors, utilizing different channels. With Zaras arrangement of a lean publicizing financial plan, an online retail entrance will include enormously as far as marking and mindfulness. Zara had at first chosen not to sell garments on the web since the profits rates were excessively high. In any case, as of September 2010, Inditex put Zara marked items online for its clients, trusting that online interest will construct. Clients can browse the typical scope of paying techniques and select either for a free store get or paid-for postal conveyance. The online return and trade approach is indistinguishable from the store framework, with customers given 30 days to adjust their perspectives. iPhone and iPad applications that permitted buying will before long be accessible and online deals will help Zara arrive at potential clients who have no simple access to physical stores. For an attire retailer, the upsides of online conveyance would give accommodation to the customers to purchase from the solace of their home, save money on movement time and costs and have simple access to the items. Clients will have 24 hour access to the shopping stage on the web and settle on better purchasing choices through online talk and conversation. Specialists recognize comfort as a crucial target identified with web based shopping (Schaupp Belanger, 2005). This is applicable to 72% of online customers guarantee that they would prefer to ride online than go to retail location to achieve data about an item (Lokken et al., 2003). Expenses on HR (Vendors, shop partners, supervisors) can be spared by the retailer and clients can settle on loosened up shrewd purchase choices without pressure from sellers. Unbounded rack space will be accessible in that, items accessible at all store areas and around the globe without geological limits, to the clients to look over. Examination sh opping as far as styles and costs will be simpler on the online entryway than in the store for the shopper. Boston Consulting Group examiners Evans and Wurster hypothesize that the three primary key draws of online retail are reach, association and lavishness. Reach is characterized as access and association: what number of clients a business can access and what number of items it can offer. In addition, a retailers scope of item contributions was customarily restricted by the size of its stores and the expense of conveying stock while online retailers as middle people among clients and providers need not really have a stock by any stretch of the imagination, just a list, frequently straightforward to the client. Connection alludes to whose interests are spoken to by the online retailer who can treat the items from their different sellers all the more dispassionately, giving increasingly target data and better item examinations for their clients. Lavishness alludes to the profundity and detail of data, about items and about clients. Evans and Wurster contend that customary retailers despit e everything are at a preferred position to gracefully master data about items to their clients, and that they additionally are still in a superior situation to assemble informa

Religion According to Sigmund Freud

Religion According to Sigmund Freud History and Biographies Print Sigmund Freuds Theories About Religion By Kendra Cherry facebook twitter Kendra Cherry, MS, is an author, educational consultant, and speaker focused on helping students learn about psychology. Learn about our editorial policy Kendra Cherry Updated on January 17, 2020 Bettman / Getty Images More in Psychology History and Biographies Psychotherapy Basics Student Resources Theories Phobias Emotions Sleep and Dreaming In This Article Table of Contents Expand Religious Influences Freud’s Jewish Heritage Freud's View of Religion Criticism of Religion Psychoanalytic View View All Back To Top Sigmund Freud is most famous for his psychoanalytic school of thought, but he also took a keen interest in religion. As an adult, Freud considered himself an atheist, but his Jewish background and upbringing and background played an important role in the development of his ideas.?? He even wrote several books focused on the topic of religion. Learn more about Freuds  complicated relationship with religion as well as some of his thoughts on religion and spirituality. Freuds Early Religious Influences Sigmund Freud was born to Jewish parents in the heavily Roman Catholic town of Freiburg, Moravia. ??Throughout his life, Freud endeavored to understand religion and spirituality and wrote several books devoted to the subject, including Totem and Taboo (1913), The Future of an Illusion (1927), Civilization and Its Discontents (1930), and Moses and Monotheism (1938). Religion, Freud believed, was an expression of underlying psychological neuroses and distress.?? At various points in his writings, he suggested that religion was an attempt to control the Oedipal complex  (as opposed to the Electra complex), a means of giving structure to social groups, wish fulfillment, an infantile delusion, and an attempt to control the outside world. Freud’s Jewish Heritage While he was very upfront about his atheism and believed that religion was something to overcome, he was aware of the powerful influence of religion on identity. He acknowledged that his Jewish heritage, as well as the antisemitism he frequently encountered, had shaped his own personality. My language is German. My culture, my attainments are German. I considered myself German intellectually until I noticed the growth of anti-Semitic prejudice in Germany and German Austria. Since that time, I prefer to call myself a Jew, he wrote in 1925.?? Religion According to Freud So how did Freud feel about religion? In some of his best-known writings, he suggested that it was an illusion, a form of neurosis, and even an attempt to gain control over the external world. Among some of Freuds most famous quotes on religion, in his book  New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis (1933), he suggested that religion is an illusion and it derives its strength from the fact that it falls in with our instinctual desires. In The Future of an Illusion, Freud wrote that religion is comparable to a childhood neurosis. Moses and Monotheism was one of his final works prior to his death. In it, he suggested that religion is an attempt to get control over the sensory world, in which we are placed, by means of the wish-world, which we have developed inside us as a result of biological and psychological necessities. [...] If one attempts to assign to religion its place in mans evolution, it seems not so much to be a lasting acquisition, as a parallel to the neurosis which the civilized individual must pass through on his way from childhood to maturity.   Freud’s Criticism of Religion While fascinated by religion and spirituality, Freud was also at times quite critical. He critiqued religion for being unwelcoming, harsh, and unloving toward those who are not members of a specific religious group.   From The Future of an Illusion (1927): Our knowledge of the historical worth of certain religious doctrines increases our respect for them, but does not invalidate our proposal that they should cease to be put forward as the reasons for the precepts of civilization. On the contrary! Those historical residues have helped us to view religious teachings, as it were, as neurotic relics, and we may now argue that the time has probably come, as it does in an analytic treatment, for replacing the effects of repression by the results of the rational operation of the intellect. Some of his most critical comments can be found in his text Civilization and Its Discontents.    The whole thing is so patently infantile, so foreign to reality, that to anyone with a friendly attitude to humanity it is painful to think that the great majority of mortals will never be able to rise above this view of life, he suggested. It is still more humiliating to discover how a large number of people living today, who cannot but see that this religion is not tenable, nevertheless try to defend it piece by piece in a series of pitiful rearguard actions. The different religions have never overlooked the part played by the sense of guilt in civilization. What is more, they come forward with a claim...to save mankind from this sense of guilt, which they call sin. Freuds Psychoanalytic Perspective on Religion Freuds psychoanalytic perspective viewed religion as the unconscious minds need for wish fulfillment. Because people need to feel secure and absolve themselves of their own guilt, Freud believed that they choose to believe in God, who represents a powerful father-figure.

Racial And Ethnic Groups Of Hispanic Adults - 1164 Words

I interviewed my client and here are the responses to the questions I asked. From being around this group for a long time I know they do not like doctors, and I did not push the issue, my client still is stuffy and coughing and again I am not pushing her I tried my motivational skills and that did not work. They are convinced their concoctions will work for them. According to recent studies where they have found that Latinos are the racial and ethnic group least likely to visit the doctor. More than one-fourth of Latino adults in the United States lack a usual healthcare provider and almost half of Latinos never visit a medical professional during the course of the year. Other reports show that Latinos are more likely than members of other groups to delay healthcare for an illness or drop out of treatment when symptoms disappear. A language barrier also discourages some Latinos from asking for help, or from understanding the healthcare information available. And for the many Latinos working low-wage jobs or who are self-employed, they employment status disqualifies them from public health programs while still not providing enough income for them to afford quality care, (theatlantic.com). 1. What do you think caused your problem? I believe I was expose to bacteria that caused my infection from my son who was sick the weekend before. In addition, I stayed up for more than 24 hours on Friday three days before I became ill. I believe this played havoc on my immunity system asShow MoreRelatedThe Influence Of Obesity In America808 Words   |  4 Pages Within the last decade, the rate of obesity has been increasing. In 2012, at least one-third of U.S. adults were obese.1 It is expected by 2018 that the number of obese adults increases to half of U.S. adults.2 The rates for children and adolescents are increasing as well. 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Discussion Of Domain B Focuses On Evaluating The Student...

Discussion of Domain Domain B focuses on evaluating the student learning as a whole process. It covers Teaching Performance Expectations (TPE) 2 which is to monitor student learning during instruction and Teaching Performance Expectations (TPE) 3 which involves interpretations and use of assessments. Given these points, teacher performance expectations or TPEs are teacher’s guidelines that is essential to follow and remember in order to become an effective and successful education specialist. To begin with, TPE 2 consists of different factors in performing the teaching job. First, teacher should demonstrates knowledge of confidentiality provisions and requirements. For this reason, teacher needs to make sure all personal and testing information are confidential. It can only be shared with IEP team who are involved in the student’s education. Second, teacher should demonstrate working knowledge of basic tests and measurement principles. 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The basic concepts of qualitative research that will be discussed here cover the definition of qualitative research based on some authors, the  characteristics of qualitative research contrasted to quantitative research, the strengths and weakness of qualitative research, and it follow the discussion of the importance of qualitative research in English language

Dont Judge D Buk by Its Covrr Free Essays

Don’t judge a book by its cover means not to judge people or things by what they look like from the outside. People shouldn’t be judged by how they look but be judged by their actions. It actually means that people cannot be judged by what they appear like to you at first, it is necessary to get to know them and â€Å"read† them before you can judge them It means not to judge people by the way they look or act. We will write a custom essay sample on Dont Judge D Buk by Its Covrr or any similar topic only for you Order Now Something very powerful can be inside them. it means dont judge a person on how they look and only judge them on who they really are! If you judge a book by it’s cover is to judge someone or something before you get to know them or try it. Such as if someone looks funny and you don’t know them you shouldn’t make fun of them because they could turn out to be the nicest person you ever met. Also if someone advertises for a product and you don’t think it will work you shouldn’t because it might work really good and it will be fun and/or good for you to have. On the other hand something could look good and be really bad. So if someone is really pretty that doesn’t mean ‘Oh, that person is really pretty they must be nice! ‘ They could be really stuck up and mean. Or if something looks shiny and new and people on TV. say it works really good it could be bad. The meaning of the saying ‘never judge a book by its cover’ is that we can’t simply judge people only by their appearances. But, this is not always true. For instance, if an employer wants to recruit an employee and hundreds of people apply, the employer will probably narrow the list down based on first impressions. In other words, the employer is judging them by their ‘cover’ to save time. But when it comes to choosing friends, we have to choose carefully. Some people might be bad for us. If we choose them wrongly, the consequences are very serious – the wrong kinds of friends can create all kinds of trouble for us. I think, rather than judging a book by its cover, we need to read the content of the book and base our judgments on what we see there. You shouldn’t form an opinion on someone or something based purely on what you see on the surface, because usually after taking a deeper look, the person or thing will not be what you expected it to be. When looking for something to read, people will often times only glance at the cover of a book before making a decision. Due to this, many books get overlooked merely due to the title or picture on the front of them being unappealing to the eye. However, if one were to open the book up and peer into its contents, they’d probably find that they were missing out on some interesting and valuable information. Hence, don’t judge a book by its cover! The phrase is also applied to people. How? Well, before getting to know someone, a person tends to first judge others based on their outward appearance, their nationality, or other external factors. It’s a shame, though, because while a person might look rough on the outside, you can never truly know what they are like on the inside unless you ‘open’ them up and get to know them How to cite Dont Judge D Buk by Its Covrr, Essay examples

Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been Research Paper Example

Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? Paper Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? Analysis Essay The decline of the societal and cultural values during 1960s can be seen through Joyce Carol Oates’, â€Å"Where are you going, Where have you been? † The story, which narrates the fatal destiny of fifteen year old Connie, shows the rise of a pop-culture/music guided society, it also shows the rise of the sexual revolution and the disregard for women, and the negligence of parents at the time. In the story the devil is represented by ARNOLD FRIEND, who at the end of the story seduces Connie into her own doom. Connie meets Friend at a fly-infested restaurant, fly-infested symbolizing lack of morality. Music was a huge part of the story. Happiness would not come to Connie by spending time with her family, or by going out her friends, happiness only came to Connie when she heard â€Å"the† music. An example of this can be found when Connie was leaving with Eddie, â€Å"her face gleaming with joy that had nothing to do with Eddie or even this place; it might have been the music. † Carol Oates tries to show that Arnold, the devil or evil, used the music to invade Connie’s life. We will write a custom essay sample on Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Where Are You Going, Where Have You Been? specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Through out the story, Arnold used riming and used phrases used in songs of the time. As in when he called Connie â€Å"My sweet little blue-eyed girl,† making reference to Bob Dylan’s song. The character Ellie Oscar, Arnold’s companion, makes reference to the rise in importance of the pop-culture. The name Ellie signifies the popular singer Elvis Presley, and Oscar a connection to the highest award possible in the pop-culture world. The sexual context of the story suggests the negative criticism of Oates towards the sexual revolution. One of the characters in the story is Pettinger girl, whose name includes the word petting, referring to the touching between people that causes sexual pleasure. The number code on Arnold’s car, 33 19 17, when added gives the number 69 which is a sexual connotation. The phrase â€Å"hot-dogs cooked out bursting† is also a sexual connotation. The writing on the left rear fender had the writing â€Å"DONE BY CRAZY WOMAN DRIVER,† showing the disregard for women that Arnold had, or that in fact the sexual revolution brought. Finally, Oates also shows the deteriorating relationship between parents and hildren. The Connie’s parents remain nameless through out the whole story, showing the insignificance of them in Connie’s life. Connie had a bad relationship with her mother, they were constantly arguing. When Connie’s father would pick her and her friend up after an afternoon spent at the â€Å"mall,† he would not even bother to ask them how everything went. Oates tries to show, that it was through that hole in communication that Arnold, the devil, got into Connie’s life. That place, which she called home and signified safety, had become a symbol of false safety. This can be seemed through this phrase, â€Å"this place you are now—inside your daddy’s house—is nothing but a cardboard I can knock down any time. † â€Å"Where are you going, where have you been,† is a big criticism towards the 1960s society and culture. To Oates the deteriorating moral value was caused by the rise in importance of the pop-culture, which in some form led Connie into her doom, and the lack of communication between parents and kids. Oates’ opposition to the sexual revolution is also evident in the story.

Gas Mileage essays

Gas Mileage essays As his car warmed up that morning, Alan Wilson stared with amazement at his gas gauge. I cant believe its on EMPTY again, he ranted. I just spent twenty bucks last weekend! Alan sped away from his home toward the gas station before he had to be at work that morning only to find out that the gas prices had been raised again. Why dont I just burn my money? he said facetiously. Alan grabbed the nozzle and began the weekly task of filling up the gas tank on his 1970 Ford Maverick with a 302 and dual exhaust. I need to go buy one of those new Styrofoam pieces of junk that get thirty miles to the gallon, he mumbled to himself. Since the invention of the car, people have had to go through this ordeal because we have no choice. It has been over eighty years, and we are still using gasoline as the primary source of power for our vehicles. With all of the new technology created over these years, shouldnt we have thought of something better by now? The truth is that we have. Electr icity is a much cleaner, more efficient form of power that could be put to use, but it hasnt (Bradley 444). Is there any particular reason? Of course! Somebody will lose money. The idea of an electric car has been embedded in the mind of people for countless years. Whether it be by a writer, an inventor, or a scientist, it has been thought about for some time. Not only would this idea be safer for the environment, it would save billions of people money. Unfortunately, gas companies havent preferred these ideas over losing millions of dollars in sales. Although it may not be true, many environmentalists believe that car manufacturers have been bought off by the gas companies in order to keep their millions flowing in (Sullivan 2). How could an idea perfected years ago not have caught on by now? The first working electric car was created in the 1800&...

A Reflection Essay

A Reflection Essay A Reflection Essay A Reflection Essay Paper: Writing Tips A reflective essay is a paper that basically describes your views and feeling about some particular subject. The goal of it is to convince the personal experiences and feelings that resulted. Unlike many other types of essays the purpose of this paper is not to discuss the subject, but to explore the ideas. To Write A Reflection Essay: Getting Started Before writing find the topic. There can be one major or several small topics. When you choose a topic fora reflection essay, think about the information that you have learned and interesting facts that brought you some new knowledge. It should be wide enough to raise the interest in reader. Consider at least three-page reflection essay writing. The main part of a reflection essay has to include: Keep to the basic rules of five paragraph essay: Write an introduction paragraph that gives the information about the author and the document Develop your idea by dividing it into several important points and, therefore, into several paragraphs Give solid background information Use topic sentences Provide some sense of the importance of your writing for your own faiths development Use good sentence structure, avoid sentence fragments and fuses sentences, choose language that expresses your meaning While writing a reflection essay you should provide your own experiences in an interesting manner, however carefully consider your target auditorium. It is very important to get the reader involved in the story. A reflection essay is like playground for good presentation of ideas and experiences of the writer, they allow him to grow. The successful reflection essay will involve the reader in the writers ideas, emotions, and experiences. Thus, you should use vivid writing style, different linguistic tools and analyze the audience carefully in order to engage your reader as much as possible. A Reflection Essay Writing Help If you need help in writing your work or you simply do not have time to make a research and to prepare it, you are welcome to become our client and receive a professional help in your task overnight. It is easy and very convenient. Read more: Essays on Patriotism Assignment Help Writing a Critical Essay Synthesis Writing Steps Custom Writing Service

Principle of Marketing in the Food and Beverages Market Research Paper

Principle of Marketing in the Food and Beverages Market - Research Paper Example Bearing the lessons in mind, the marketing strategies which shall be proposed for Shin Shii shall be founded upon the characteristics of the market in question and, proceeding from that, shall aim towards the maximization of effect within a reasonable budget. In selecting its marketing strategy for entry into the U.S. market, it is necessary to consider both the threats and opportunities which shall confront Shin Shii. Based on observations of the US beverages market, marketing and market research scholars have determined that the primary threats confronting both existing companies and new entrants are over-saturation and an increasingly health-conscious consumer-base (Swot,'2005). In other words, not only is competition extremely intense and dominated by a handful of major food and beverages companies but, health concerns are functioning as a threat to the maintenance of the existent market, let alone its expansion. While market research scholars have identified a number of serious threats confronting the food and beverages' market, they have also identified a number of attractive opportunities, especially pertinent to the case of Shin Shii. In the first place, while the beverages' market may be oversaturated, the U.S. consumer market is a highly experimental one by nature and is attracted to novelty (Swot,' 2005). In other words, it exhibits a persistent and unfailing tendency to test the new. In the second place, the trend towards health consciousness implies that while the soda market may be sealed off for the present, there is a market for beverages which are considered healthy or, at least, benign, in that they neither have negative nor positive health effects.  

Magnet Recognition Program for Nurses Research Paper

Magnet Recognition Program for Nurses - Research Paper Example There was a distinction between the two roles in the 1960’s but today the role of the RN is not as distinct; each level of education received the title of RN after successful passing of the state boards of nursing licensure test to become a practicing registered nurse (Pellico et al., 2009). Previous distinction of role included the definitions of the technical nurse and the professional nurse. The technical nurse was in the beginning educational preparation stage and attended a 2 year community college. The professional nurse was enrolled in a four year nursing program at a colleges or university; the distinction of roles is consistent with accreditation standards of thinking at the time (Donley & Flaherty, 2008). The goal was to expand the nursing programs and assist the technical nurse to transition into professional practice (Donley & Flaherty, 2008 & Nelson, 2002). These attempts notwithstanding, the needs of the educational curriculum were still not fulfilled for the RN at both levels after taking the state board licensure exam receives the same title, â€Å"RN†. There is a continued effort for nursing to elevate the profession at a higher educational level. healthcare facilities with Magnet ® status help to push this process forward with the continued excellence in nursing practice outcomes. In 1965, the American Nurses Association’s First Position on Education in nursing was published to describe the need for educational reform in nursing (ANA, 1965). This argument continues today. The goal for a standardized nursing entry level of education has yet to be resolved. According to Smith (2009) the environment of nursing has evolved considerably and educational advances need to be changed.... Magnet Recognition Program for Nurses With the advent of the Magnet Recognition Program ® more healthcare facilities are seeking attainment of a higher level of professional nursing practice. The rationale for healthcare facilities in seeking Magnet Status is driven by healthcare institutions wanting to serve the communities with the highest level of care possible in the use of innovative technology and excellence in care. Bargagliotti, West-Sands, Burchum & Selbe, note that in year 1960s, most nurses were trained at a diploma level, which was a two or three year hospital based nursing program where nursing students learned the basic skills to care for patients in the hospital. In the 1960’s, undergraduate programs were recognized as a path that nursing students should take to function at the professional level of nursing. This system was generally quicker and cost effective to utilize the diploma programs to produce a high functioning nurse to care for the large number of patients. The diploma programs were the first to be extinguished from the education framework as the profession moved into the ADN and BSN programs of study. All nurses at every level should be encouraged to go back to school and continue the path of lifelong learning in the profession of nursing. Lacey, Cox & Lorfing (2007) anticipated that the entry level for nursing will be the BSN which consists of entry level by the year 2020. This process continues and will continue until all can agree to the level and expectations of the professional entry level of the nurse.

Homebuying 101: An Affordable Challenge Essay -- Journalism Essays

Homebuying 101: An Affordable Challenge For the past four weeks, Natalie Delsoin and 24 other Boston residents have been spending their Tuesday nights learning the ins and outs of affordable housing. Delsoin recently moved to Dorcester after a military stint in Germany, and she hopes to someday own a home. She plans on that day coming sooner rather than later. Delsoin’s biggest concern is her 2 year-old daughter. â€Å"I need a single family home that is safe†¦ and safe for my child,† she said. The class’ instructor, Tanya Townshend, teaches 30 to 60 people in each of her homebuyers classes. Townshend works as an assistant property manager for Maloney Properties, a New England real estate chain that sponsors a number of sessions for homebuyers. Townshend said â€Å"about 10% (of class attendants) seem to be ready to buy† after her four week seminar. The rest attend more classes or work on improving their credit rating before bidding on a home. Boston is one of the tightest housing markets in the country. Many first-time homebuyers are looking for any advantage they can get in finding their first home. For many homebuyers, affordable housing is the only realistic option. However, affordable housing is limited and there are a number of obstacles for families seeking to go that route. To help with the process, the city of Boston and a handful of community development groups sponsor first-time homeowner courses and support programs for people interested in affordable housing. According to a August 2000 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) low income housing study, â€Å"the overall vacancy rate for rental units in the Boston was 4.1% in 1998 compared to 6.7% for the Northeast region and 7.9% for the country.† The h... ... at the assessment shows this duplex has no remodeling work done, the exterior and interior structures are poor, and the interior finish is graded as substandard. For a two-family home, it offers a decent accommodation – each residence has three bedrooms and one and a half bathrooms, as well as over 1,700 feet of living space. Significant depreciation in property value indicates the place is extremely run down. For prospective first-time homeowners, a tight housing market and constantly changing neighborhoods make finding the right home a difficult choice. The market is full of wrong choices. Potential buyers like Natalie Delsoin and James Creed hold out hope when their lottery number is picked, there are still affordable housing options waiting for them. Creed says that regardless of when that time comes, the classes â€Å"make you go in with your eyes more wide open.†

Why We Sleep

WHY WE SLEEP The Functions of Sleep in Humans and Other Mammals J. A. Horne Published by Oxford University Press 1988 Contents CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1. 1Early Sleep Theories 1. 2Daily Sleep and Wakefulness 1. 3Measuring Sleep References CHAPTER 2 Sleep Deprivation 2. 1Problems with Animal Experiments 2. 2Recent Animal Experiments 2. 3Some Problems with Human Experiments 2. 41896 – The First Real Sleep Deprivation Experiment on Humans 2. 5The Longest Study – 264 hours Without Sleep 2. 6Abnormal Behaviour 2. 7The Longest Study With More than One Subject – 205 hours 2. The Walter Reed Experiments 2. 9Motivation and Cerebral Impairment 2. 10Tasks Sensitive to Sleep Deprivation 2. 11Higher Levels of Cerebral Function 2. 12Spare Cerebral Capacity 2. 13Performance Measures Are Too Limited 2. 14Two Types of Sleepiness ? 2. 15Short-Term Sleep Restriction 2. 16Age and Sleep Deprivation 2. 17Does Repeated Deprivation Produce Immunity to Sleep Loss ? 2. 18Can Sleep Deprivat ion Effects be Sped Up or Slowed Down ? 2. 19Do Long and Short Sleepers Differ in Their Recovery Sleep ? 2. 20Epilepsy 2. 21Other Effects On the Human EEGReferences CHAPTER 3 Physiological Effects of Sleep Deprivation 3. 1The First Major Physiological Study – Kleitman, 1923 3. 2The Next Fifty Years 3. 3Body Restitution and Sleep 3. 4Effects on Exercise 3. 5The Control of Body Temperature (Thermoregulation) 3. 6Other Aspects of Homeostasis 3. 7Update on Hormone Changes 3. 8The Immune System 3. 9Conclusions about Sleep Deprivation in Humans References CHAPTER 4 Body Restitution and Sleep 4. 1Tissue Restitution : Protein Turnover and Cell Division 4. 2Factors Influencing Protein Turnover and the Cell Cycle 4. Feeding and Protein Turnover 4. 4Mitosis, Sleep and Physical Activity 4. 5Metabolism During Sleep and the Energy Cost of Restitution 4. 6Cell Energy Charge and Sleep 4. 7Human Growth Hormone Release During Sleep 4. 8Other Hormonal Changes During Human Sleep 4. 9Thyroid Acti vity and Sleep – Body Versus Brain Restitution 4. 10The Effects of Exercise on Sleep – Background 4. 11Is Body Heating the Key ? 4. 12Conclusions References CHAPTER 5 Waking Awareness, Subsequent Sleep, and Cerebral â€Å"Restitution† 5. 1Background 5. 2Influences of Wakefulness on Subsequent Sleep 5. SWS Changes over the Night, and â€Å"Models† of SWS 5. 4Brain Work During Wakefulness 5. 5Increased Awareness during Wakefulness and Subsequent Sleep 5. 6Reduced Sensory Stimulation during Wakefulness 5. 7SWS Reductions in Psychiatric Disorders 5. 8SWS and Ageing 5. 9SWS Deprivation 5. 10Brain and Behaviour During SWS 5. 11Cerebral Restitution During SWS ? 5. 12Sleep â€Å"Substances† and Immunoen hancement 5. 13Conclusions References CHAPTER 6 Core and Optional Sleep 6. 1Introduction 6. 2Natural Long and Short Sleepers amongst Humans 6. 3Can the Normal Sleeper Adapt to Less Sleep ? . 4Sleep Extension 6. 5Are We Chronically Sleep Deprived ? 6. 6The C ircadian Timing of Sleep 6. 7Abnormalities in the Timing of Sleep 6. 8Insomnia 6. 9Stage 2 Sleep 6. 10Conclusions References CHAPTER 7 Sleep in Other Mammals 7. 1Dolphins 7. 2Laboratory vs. Natural Habitats 7. 3Statistical Analyses of Mammalian Sleep 7. 4Sleep – the Immobiliser and Energy Conserver for Small Mammals 7. 5More Energy saving if Sleep develops into a Torpor 7. 6Night versus Day Sleeping Mammals 7. 7Food, Feeding Behaviour and Cerebral Development 7. 8Encephalisation 7. 9Conclusions so Far 7. 0Infancy References CHAPTER 8 REM Sleep 8. 1Perspectives on Dreaming 8. 2Memory, Homeostatic, Sentinel, and Motivational Theories 8. 3Abundance of REM Sleep in Early Life – The Ontogenetic Hypothesis 8. 4Sleep After Increased Learning 8. 5REM Sleep Deprivation in Animals – Background 8. 6REM Sleep Deprivation, Learning and Drive Behaviour 8. 7REM Sleep Deprivation in Humans 8. 8Brain Protein Synthesis and Related Findings 8. 9Conclusions so Far 8. 10Similarities between REM Sleep and Wakefulness 8. 11Keeping Cool 8. 12Keeping Warm 8. 13Increased Heat Production without Shivering . 14Thermoregulation in REM Sleep Reverts to the Foetal Level 8. 15Conclusions About REM Sleep References EPILOGUE Why Do We Sleep ? CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION This is a book about the purpose of sleep in mammals, particularly in humans. My approach has been to take a broad biological perspective, looking at sleep in relation to the natural lifestyles and behaviour of mammals, and making what I hope is a series of informed opinions about what sleep means to them, and especially to us. Of course, I do not have the answer to why we sleep, as too much is still unknown.What I have attempted to do is clear away many misconceptions and try and make some sense of what is left. This book is not meant to be a comprehensive text on sleep, but a selective and personal account giving several hypotheses about a variety of aspects on sleep. Many of my conclusions may well turn out t o be wrong, as that is the way of most theories. However, I hope that before they fail they prove to be of use in stimulating other ideas. I have tried to make the book readable, and present my case within an unfurling story about sleep.Technicalities have been kept to a minimum, although at times, and of necessity, it goes into some detail. Wherever possible, I have tried to make it understandable, as the book is aimed not only at sleep researchers, but at a readership having more of a passing interest in sleep, with only a basic background in biology and psychology. Little coverage is given to the brain's neurophysiological and neurochemical mechanisms regulating sleep. Whilst they help explain how sleep occurs, the fundamental questions about what they are doing there in the first place, that is the function of sleep, still have to be answered.Besides, there are already excellent texts describing these mechanisms (e. g. ref. 1). Many people feel that, despite fifty years of resea rch, all we can conclude about the function of sleep is that it overcomes sleepiness, and that the only reliable finding from sleep deprivation experiments is that sleep loss makes us sleepy. Such a forlorn outlook has been partly responsible for many sleep researchers turning away from basic research to the more stimulating field of sleep disorders. Besides, is knowing why we sleep such a vital question after all ?Employment prospects are far better in the area of sleep disorders, and there is the satisfaction of being able to help or cure many patients. Numerous Sleep Disorders Centres have been established in the United States and Europe over the last decade (alas, not in the UK), and this is by far the greatest growth area in sleep research. Whilst it could rightly be argued that sleep disorders is a far more worthwhile area for sleep research, unfortunately, like the neurophysiological mechanisms of sleep, it still does not tell us much about why we sleep.Certainly, it has prov ided valuable information about the neurophysiological mechanisms, and about the association between sleep and breathing (which is not really related to the function of sleep either). This is why the book contains little about sleep disorders. Again, there are already several excellent accounts available (e. g. refs. 2-4). The aim of this book is to show that we have not reached a dead-end in our understanding about the functions of sleep, but rather, that we may have taken too much for granted.As will be seen, this topic is still an unknown and exciting entity, with many avenues still to follow, and there is much work to be done. Writings about why we sleep date back to before the days of Aristotle. Most couch the purpose of sleep in terms of rest and recovery from the â€Å"wear and tear† of wakefulness. One cannot really argue with this idea as it makes so much sense, and besides, we all know that we feel the â€Å"worse for wear† without sleep, and so much better a fter sleep. Nevertheless it is a vague idea – what exactly is recovered ?This is still a matter for considerable debate, as will be seen throughout the book. It is commonly thought that 7 – 8 hours sleep a night is necessary. This idea is reinforced from many quarters. For example, by the popular press (â€Å"you must get your beauty sleep†), and by many GPs. Asking a patient â€Å"how are you sleeping ? â€Å", may only be a stock phrase for helping the GP to establish rapport, but it still emphasises the need for a â€Å"good night's sleep†. The key symptom of insuffient or disturbed sleep is excessive sleepiness in the daytime.But many insomniacs do not experience this, and a major concern is about â€Å"not getting enough sleep†, and what may happen to their health as a consequence. However, we probably do not really need the last few hours of a typical night's sleep, and sleep loss is far less harmful than most would think. Most of the theor ies about the function of sleep concentrate on dreams or dreaming sleep, nowadays called â€Å"rapid eye movement† sleep (REM sleep). Few look at the remaining sleep. Many people believe that we only go to sleep for the purpose of dreaming or having REM sleep.Clearly, dreams are the most enjoyable and noticable part of sleep, but the importance of this sleep is probably overran ted. As will be seen, a large portion of REM sleep is dispensable, without ill-effect. REM sleep only occupies about one quarter of our nightly sleep, and to call the rest of sleep â€Å"non-REM† sleep, by describing it in terms of an absence of REM sleep, not only debases the majority of sleep, but overlooks what may losely be described as the â€Å"deeper† part of non-REM sleep, called â€Å"slow wave sleep† (SWS) in humans.This form of sleep may well turn out to be the most crucial for us. Nevertheless, despite the fact that no-one really knows what REM sleep does, or whether it is â€Å"good† for us, there is concern if it is dimimished. For example, if a sleeping tablet leaves REM sleep unchanged, or even increases it, then this is often seen to be a selling point for the drug, and little concern is usually expressed if the drug impairs or alters non-REM sleep, which by the way, many of these tablets do to a noticeable extent.This is not meant as a criticism of drug companies, as they have only been following the climate of opinion in sleep research. REM sleep has traditionally been viewed to be essential for the normal functioning of the brain during wakefulness, while non-REM sleep, particularly SWS, is for the rest of the body. Rightly or wrongly so, the old idea of â€Å"dualism†, the body versus mind controversy in biology has strongly influenced perspectives on sleep. However, as will be seen, this is too simple an explanation, as apart from anything else, the functions of sleep have probably changed with mammalian evolution.For examp le, whereas sleep may well provide generalised body tissue repair for the mouse, it is unlikely that this is the case for humans, where sleep seems particularly beneficial to the cerebrum. On the other hand, for us, and perhaps even the mouse, REM sleep may largely be some form of substitute for wakefulness, keeping the brain stimulated without having to awaken the sleeper. Perhaps dreams themselves are just a â€Å"cinema of the mind† – the brain's great entertainer to while away the nighttime hours !However, it is important not to fall into the trap of thinking about each type of sleep in isolation, each having its own distinct function, separate from whatever the other types of sleep are doing. Sleep is a complex process and it is likely that different types of sleep interact with one another to promote a variety of functions, even though one type of sleep may be associated more with one function than another. The last three paragraphs are introductions to most of t he key themes of this book, which are developed a little more at the end of the next Section.Each chapter expands these themes further, and there are summaries at the end of most chapters. Each chapter is a fairly self-contained unit, and does not have to be read in sequence, although this is recommended. A grand summary of all the main themes is given in the last chapter, â€Å"Why Do We Sleep†, and the reader might like to take a preview of it. 1. 1 Early Sleep Theories Apart from viewing sleep as some sort of recovery process, most of the early theories only looked at the the mechanisms that produce sleep, rather than what exactly sleep does.For example, believing it to be the result of a build up of some substance in the brain during wakefulness, that is dissipated during sleep. Even Aristotle thought along these lines two thousand years ago, and considered that sleep resulted from warm vapours rising from within the stomach: â€Å"The evaporation attendant upon the proc ess of nutrition .. naturally tends to move upward. This explains why fits of drowsiness are especially apt to come after meals. It also follows certain forms of fatigue; for fatigue operates as a solvent, and the dissolved (warm) matter acts like food prior to digestion†.In the last century, with more advancements in the understanding of the brain, heart and vascular system, one school of thought considered sleep to be caused by the â€Å"congestion of the brain† by blood. This contrasted with another popular theory at the time, of â€Å"cerebral anaemia†, due to blood being drawn away from the brain and diverted elsewhere in the body, especially to the gut. Such ideas even led to opposing beliefs about how to induce â€Å"better† sleep. Some propounded sleeping without pillows to encourage blood flow to the head, and others encouraged the opposite – use plenty of pillows to drain the blood away. Behavioural† theories were also common in the 19th century, particularly that sleep was due to an absence of external stimulation, with wakefulness only being possible if the organism was constantly stimulated. Take the stimulation away and the animal will fall asleep. To some extent this notion is true, as we can all testify, but it is not the answer. At the turn of the century another behavioural theory became very popular, proposed by a Frenchman, Dr Eduard Claparede.He considered that sleep was not so much a passive response, but an active process like an instinct, to avoid fatigue occurring – â€Å"we sleep not because we are intoxicated or exhausted, but in order to prevent our becoming intoxicated or exhausted†. For him, sleep ends when we have had enough. An interesting idea initially, but it has as much depth of understanding as saying that we eat in order to prevent ourselves from starving. The real purpose for eating is to provide nutrients, that undergo complex processes which allow the body to live, g row, and repair itself.The beginning of the 20th century also produced many of what are termed â€Å"humoral† theories, whereby various sleep inducing substances accumulated in the brain. These ranged from known chemicals like lactic acid, carbon dioxide and cholesterol, to the vaguely described â€Å"leucomaines† and â€Å"urotoxins†. Nevertheless, by 1907 some headway began to be made when two French researchers, Drs Rene Legendre and Henri Pieron, claimed to have obtained a substance they called â€Å"hypnotoxin† from sleep deprived animals. This gave a large boost to the humoral theories for the next twenty years or so, with much activity by several groups of researchers.However, success was hard to come by and interest dwindled. That is, until the 1960s, when great headway has since been made into â€Å"sleep substances† (see Section 5. 12). In those interim years most of the excitement came from advances in neurophysiology that could be relat ed to sleep, and a spate of different neural â€Å"inhibition† theories for sleep appeared. Many had had their early impetus from Pavlov's views on â€Å"cortical inhibition† – that sleep originated from a form of blocking within the cerebral hemispheres.Although Pavlov vehemently dismissed the alternative, of sleep inducing â€Å"centres† in more basic parts of the brain below the cortex, these have since been found to exist, and have become the centre of one of the prominent fields of sleep research, especially, after the discovery in the late 1940s, of arousal centres in the reticular formation. Unfortunately though, sleep centres and humoral theories still do not tell us much about the purpose of sleep, in the same way that knowing about centres in the brain that regulate eating behaviour explain little about the purpose of eating.Hypotheses about the function of sleep have centred on various types of recovery following the wear and tear of wakefulnes s, and come under the heading of â€Å"restorative† theories. In contrast, there are alternatives that reject this standpoint and claim that sleep is non-restorative – simply a form of instinct or â€Å"non-behaviour† for keeping us, as well as other mammals, out of harm's way, and occupying the otherwise tedious and unproductive hours of darkness. Through this immobility, sleep will also prevent any waste of energy through needlessly moving about.Hence sleep is often seen as an â€Å"energy conserver†. Whilst I believe that these restitutional and instinctive theories have their merits, they seem to fail because each is usually applied universally to all mammals. Why should the functions of sleep for a small nocturnal mammal like the mouse, with a poorly developed cerebral cortex, unable to relax during wakefulness, continually having to forage for food and be on the lookout for predators, be exactly the same as that for humans, who are usually the oppos ite in all these respects?One theme I shall be developing in this book is that these three aspects of sleep function – restoration, energy conservation, and as an occupier of time, will alter as the evolutionary scale is ascended, depending on various interrelated circumstances of the mammal, particularly body size, level of cerebral development, amount of relaxed wakefulness and type of diet. Furthermore, for most mammals including ourselves, the functions of sleep may well alter as each night's sleep progresses, initially serving more important purposes, then changing to those of less benefit.Not only does this idea break with the traditional division of sleep into REM and non-REM sleep, but also means that the last part of sleep may be â€Å"superfluous† in many mammals. For humans, this applies to the last two hours or so of the typical eight hours of nightly sleep. This is similar to eating and drinking, where we can easily consume more than we really need, or do with a little less, without any ill-effects, apart from some harmless adjustment of body weight, for example.My standpoints on sleep are somewhat heretical, and argue against many commonly held ideas. But before entering this controversy, let me provide a little background about some of the more common phenomena of sleep and how they are measured. 1. 2 Daily Sleep and Wakefulness The lives of all mammals are very much influenced by internal biological clocks under the control of centres within the brain that regulate not only the level of alertness over the day, but the timing of sleep, wakefulness, and most other physiological functions.There is much debate about whether these rhythms come under the control of one, two, or more central clocks. At the moment it is thought that there may be two, one controlling sleep and wakefulness, and the other body temperature and various aspects of general physiology. On the other hand, it is possible that both are part of some less well underst ood â€Å"masterclock†. However, assuming there to be two clocks, it seems that neither runs precisely at 24 hours, and the term â€Å"circadian†, from the latin circa diem (â€Å"about a day†) has been adopted to describe them.Human circadian rhythms are inclined to run a little slower than 24 hours, more like 24. 5 hours, but they are restrained to 24 hours through the brain being aware of regular daily events in the environment. Such events are called â€Å"zeitgeibers†, a german word losely translated as â€Å"time giver†. For many mammals sunrise and sunset are the main zeitgebers. If the zeitgeibers are removed, for example, by keeping an animal in an artificial environment under constant light, then the body temperature clock â€Å"free runs† at its natural period (i. . 24. 5 hours in humans). But in the modern world of electric lighting, our internal clocks can no longer rely on daylight and darkness as a zeitgeiber, and instead, som ehow use other regular cues such as mealtimes, and perhaps morning wakening by an alarm clock. Under normal everyday conditions our internal clocks are linked together, with body temperature and most physiological activities increasing during wakefulness and declining during sleep. This is not simply an effect of different levels of physical activity.For example, if sleep is lost at night and taken in the day instead, as happens in shift work, the temperature rhythm remains the same for several days, still falling at night and rising by day. Then it flattens out, and eventually begins to re-shape itself to rise at night and fall by day. Full adaptation of the temperature rhythm may take two weeks, and until this occurs, with the sleep-wakefulness rhythm completely resynchronised with it, the shiftworker experiences various discomforts such as sleepiness at work, indigestion, loss of appetite and headaches.These are not harmful, just annoying, and are in effect a worse form of  "jet lag†, where the timing of sleep and wakefulness is also suddenly shifted in relation to body temperature and local time. Why Nature has given animals these circadian clocks is not exactly clear, and the reason may vary somewhat from species to species. However, most animals are very much at the mercy of daylight and darkness, irrespective of whether they live diurnal or nocturnal lifestyles.One view of the function of the circadian clocks is that they preempt each part of the day by ensuring that sleep, wakefulness, alertness, and various physiological changes will be at their most suitable levels. Such preempting may be necessary as there is a time lag for these changes to occur, which might be too long if they did not begin until the external event arrived. For example, a warm brain works better than a cool one, but during the sleep period body and brain temperature fall a little. Some time is required for the brain to warm up, and if this did not begin until wakefulnes s then behaviour could be impaired for a while.The circadian clock seems to anticipate wakefulness and starts the warm-up process a few hours beforehand, ensuring that the brain is at a good working temperature when wakefulness begins. 1. 3 Measuring Sleep If one simply watches a sleeping mammal, including humans, certain common features are seen: A typical body posture A specific site or nest for this behaviour Physical inactivity A regular daily occurrence influenced by a circadian clock More stimulation is required to rouse the animal than during wakefulness However, advanced mammals like ourselves can feign some of these haracteristics during wakefulness by resting with the eyes shut, and a more accurate method for measuring sleep is needed. Furthermore, as it is tedious to watch an animal sleeping for many hours at a time, some form of automatic recording is desirable. The organ that shows the clearest changes during sleep compared with relaxed wakefulness is the brain, and thi s is particularly obvious in its electrical activity. Concentrating on the brain in this way is appropriate in other respects, as not only does it contain the control mechanisms of sleep, but of all the body's organs it is for the brain and behaviour (i. . mainly the cerebral cortex) that sleep seems to be the most vital. Monitoring this electrical activity in animals involves surgery and the placing of minute electrodes in the brain and other parts of the head. These are normally connected by flexible wires to a junction box above the cage. This can restrict the animals' movement, and if more freedom is wanted then a minature radio transmitter can be fixed to the head instead. In humans, electrodes are only fixed to the surface of the scalp with a quick-drying sterile glue, easily removed by a solvent.Wires from the electrodes are plugged into a junction box, and the signals amplified by a machine similar to that used for animals. Such amplifiers are technically very sophisticated as they have to boost the brain's signals by about a million-fold, because the electrical activity of the brain is only at a few millionths of a volt. After amplification, the signals can be written out by mechanical ink pens on paper, or recorded on magnetic tape. The human brain largely consists of the cerebral cortex (sometimes called the â€Å"encephalon†) surrounding the rest of the brain like the canopy of a mushroom around its stalk.As the electrodes are located above the cortex, the electrical activity they pick up is that of the cortex, rather than of deeper brain areas. Hence the term â€Å"electroencephalography† (EEG for short) is used to describe this technique of scalp recording. The paper write-out is called an â€Å"electroencephalogram† (also called the EEG), and the machine containing the amplifiers and pens, as an â€Å"electroencephalograph†. When electrodes are placed in the cortex itself, as with animals, the electrical activity shou ld strictly be called he â€Å"electrocorticogram† (ECoG). However, for simplicity, many people including myself, also refer to it as the EEG, even though this is incorrect. Much of sleep can be assessed from the EEG alone, but for the measurement of REM sleep, additional electrodes have to be placed around the eyes to detect the rapid eye movements, and over muscles in the chin or neck. For reasons that are not understood, in REM sleep these muscles profoundly relax (â€Å"tonus† is lost), and this can be used as a further guide to REM sleep.Although muscles in the rest of the body do not lose their tonus, they are unable to move as there is also a type of paralysis going on during REM sleep that prevents voluntary movement. For many mammals the EEG of REM sleep is very much like that of aroused wakefulness, which is why REM sleep used to be called â€Å"paradoxical† sleep – the animal is behaviourally asleep, but the brain seems to be awake. So without knowing about the activities of the eyes and neck muscles, we could easily mistake REM sleep for wakefulness.For humans the EEG of REM sleep is very much like that of light non-REM sleep (stage 1 sleep), and consequently was once called â€Å"stage 1-REM sleep†. Again, eye and neck muscle recordings are essential, to separate REM sleep from stage 1 sleep. The EEG consists of waves that can be measured in terms of: AMPLITUDE: The voltage between the peak and the trough of a wave, and measured in millionths of a volt (microvolts – uV). Amplitude rises as consciousness falls – from alert wakefulness, through drowsiness to deep sleep. FREQUENCY: The number of complete waves or cycles occurring in one second, and expressed as â€Å"hertz† (hz – cycles per second).The effective range in the human EEG is from about 0. 5 hz to 25 hz. Generally speaking, frequencies above about 15 hz are â€Å"fast waves†, and frequencies of under about 3. 5 hz are à ¢â‚¬Å"slow waves† – these are the waves of slow wave sleep (SWS). Whereas amplitude rises as sleep deepens, frequency falls. With the very advanced mammals, especially apes and humans, the EEG of both wakefulness and sleep is more complex, and enables further specific types of EEG to be identified according to certain frequency bands. These are given greek letters, and going from high to low frequencies the MAIN divisions are as follows (there are some gaps):BETA – is usually above 15 hz and consists of fast waves of low amplitude (under 10 uV) that occur when the cerebrum is alert or even anxious. ALPHA – is normally the range 8 – 11 hz, and is typical of relaxed wakefulness, and when there is little input to the eyes, especially when they are shut or staring at a blank wall. THETA – is in the range of 3. 5 – 7. 5 hz and it reflects drowsiness and light sleep DELTA – these are the slow waves of SWS, and have the lowest EEG freq uency, of under 3. 5 hz. They are of a high amplitude, often over 100 uV, and increase in appearance as sleep becomes â€Å"deeper†.There are some other, more transient EEG activities found only during sleep, such as â€Å"vertex sharp waves† occuring with theta activity at sleep onset, and spindles and â€Å"K complexes† that are most prominent in stage 2 sleep (see Section 6. 9). All these EEG characteristics allow human non-REM sleep to be broken down further, and there are standard reference works for this purpose, one for infants (5) and the other for adults (6), describing in detail the EEG and other characteristics of REM sleep and of the four increasingly â€Å"deeper† EEG stages of non-REM sleep – stages 1, 2, 3 and 4 sleep.However, the staging of non-REM sleep is arbitarily defined and still a matter for debate, particularly in the case of the elderly (7). Nevertheless, this sleep staging is generally accepted. Wakefulness is called stage 0, and is typified by alpha or beta activities. Stage 1 is really a transition stage from wakefulness or drowsiness to true sleep (stage 2 sleep or deeper), and usually only occupies about 5% of the night. Stage 1 is typified by theta activity, a loss of alpha, and often some vertex sharp waves. There is also much â€Å"eye rolling†, as the eyelids slowly open and shut a few times, with the eyes rolling upwards and downwards.If one watches someone falling asleep, especially if they are also struggling to remain awake, then these movements of the eyes and eyelids can be clearly seen. The bulk of human sleep, around 45 % of it, is made up of stage 2 sleep, containing a mixture of theta activity, sleep spindles, K complexes and a few delta waves. Stage 3 is more of a transition phase from stage 2 to stage 4, and only constitutes about 7% of sleep in the young adult. It contains 20 – 50 % delta activity of a certain amplitude. When this activity goes beyond 50% then the à ¢â‚¬Å"deepest† sleep, stage 4, is reached.This makes up about 13% of sleep in the young adult. SWS is the collective term for stages 3 and 4 sleep, where delta activity increasingly predominates. The EEG characteristics of the various sleep stages are shown in Figure 1. REM sleep occurs regularly throughout sleep in nearly all mammals. The time from the beginning of one episode of REM sleep to the beginning of the following is remarkably regular within any species, and seems to depend on the brain size of that species (8). The larger the brain, the longer this time interval. Whilst in humans it is about 90 minutes, for the rat it is only about 12 minutes.Interestingly, although REM sleep only makes up a small portion of total sleep in most mammal species, normally about 10 – 15%, humans have roughly double this value. However, for all of them, including humans, this declines with age (Figure 21), and as I have already mentioned, is much more evident in the newborn. REM sleep is discussed in detail in Chapter 8. Figure 1. 1: EEG of Human Sleep Stages Wakefulness shows alpha activity (subject relaxed) and beta activity (alert). Theta activity can be seen in Stage 1 sleep. Stage 2 sleep shows spindles and a K complex.Note the large slow waves (delta activity) of stage 4, also apparent to some extent in stage 3 sleep. Stages 3 and 4 together are â€Å"slow wave sleep† (SWS). The EEG of REM sleep resembles that of stage 1, and contains a mixture of beta and theta activities. To avoid mistaking these two stages, recordings are made of eye movements and chin muscle tonus (see text). Usually, for humans each minute or half-minute of sleep is broken down into the sleep stages, and the results can be plotted out as a â€Å"hypnogram†. A simplified version is seen in Figure 2, and shows certain key features of sleep: ) A rapid descent to stage 4 sleep soon after sleep onset. 2) A regular 90 minute cycling of REM sleep and other stages. 3) The p revalence of stages 3 and 4 sleep (SWS) in the first cycle, less in the second cycle, and only some stage 3 sleep in the third cycle. SWS is largely confined to the first half of sleep. 4) A greater predominance of REM sleep and stage 2 sleep in the second half of the night. Figure 1. 2: A simplified â€Å"hypnogram† of sleep stage changes over the night in young human adults REFERENCES 1. McGinty D. J. , Drucker-Colin R. , Morrison A. & Parmeggiani P-L. (eds) Brain Mechanisms of Sleep, New York: Raven Press (1985). 2. Williams R. L. , & Karacan I. (eds) Sleep Disorders, Diagnosis and Treatment, New York: Wiley and Sons (1978). 3. Chase M. , & Weitzman, E. (eds) Sleep Disorders : Basic and Clinical Research, New York : MTP Press (1983) . 4. Parkes J. D. Sleep and Its Disorders, London : W. B. Saunders Co (1985). 5. Anders T. , Emde R. , & Parmelee, A. A Manual of Standardised Terminology, Techniques and Criteria for Scoring States of Sleep and Wakefulness in the Newborn Infan t.Los Angeles: UCLA Brain Information Service (1971). 6. Rechtschaffen A. & Kales A. A Manual of Standardised Terminology, Techniques and Scoring System of Sleep Stages in Human Subjects. Los Angeles: UCLA Brain Information Service (1968). 7. Webb W. B. & Drebelow L. M. A modified method for scoring slow wave sleep of older subjects. Sleep, 5, 195 – 199 (1982). 8. Zepelin H. , & Rechtschaffen A. Mammalian sleep, longevity and energy metabolism. Brain and Behavioural Evolution, 10, 425 – 470 (1974). CHAPTER 2 SLEEP DEPRIVATION . 1. Problems with Animal Experiments One way of finding out about the functions of sleep is through sleep deprivation, and there have been many such investigations on animals and humans since the turn of the century. The general findings are, that although humans appear to cope fairly well, other mammals tend to come off worse. This does not necessarily mean that humans have different sleep functions to those of animals, but that most of the anim al experiments have introduced additional stresses which have been more eventful.With humans, we can ask for volunteers to go without sleep for a few days, and impress on them that they are free to withdraw whenever then want. Also, these volunteers are carefully looked after, their safety is ensured, and nothing harmful will be allowed to happen to them. However, none of these factors really apply to animals, as for example, we cannot communicate these assurances to them, and so to speak, put their minds at rest and allay apprehension. Their natural lifestyle is totally disrupted, as they are kept awake at times of the day when they expect to sleep, through methods they do not understand and have no control over.Although sleep deprivation in animals can be given for a longer time than for humans, implying that more interesting findings might be forthcoming, we can still be more confident that the results from human sleep deprivation studies are less affected by additional stresses. The first well-documented experiment of this type on animals was carried out in France during 1894 by a Dr M. de Manaceine, who kept puppies awake for 4-6 days by walking or handling them continually. By the end of this time their body temperatures had fallen by about 4 °C, and there was a drop in the number of red blood cells.Autopsies revealed many small haemorrhages in the cerebral cortex. These findings stimulated much interest and soon led to further studies by other laboratories, also on puppies. Again, falls in body temperature were found, and although changes in the cerebral cortex were also reported, these were more variable and of a different nature to those of Manaceine's puppies. However, few of these experiments used a control group of animals, and it is likely that some of the changes attributed to sleep deprivation may have been due simply to laboratory techniques unrelated to the deprivation itself.Ideally a control group would consist of littermates allowed to sl eep normally, so that comparisons could be made with the deprived animals. Such a method was subsequently used in the substantive studies carried out by an American, Dr Nathaniel Kleitman, in the 1920s. Over the next 40 years he performed many more investigations into sleep in both animals and humans, and for these efforts he is usually regarded as the â€Å"father† of sleep research. His great work, â€Å"Sleep and Wakefulness† (1), was for many years the textbook on sleep.In Kleitman's early experiments, puppies were kept awake for 2-7 days, by groups of assistants walking or playing with the animals. This technique was successful for up to 3-4 days of continued wakefulness, with most of the animals feeding and drinking normally. Thereafter though, they would lose all interest in the surroundings. However, when they were compared with littermate control animals that were not sleep deprived, there was no greater fall in body temperature, nor any important change to vi tal functions.The only real finding was a confirmation of the earlier reports of a drop in the number of red blood cells in the sleep deprived animals. Examination of the brains of all the animals showed similar and clear abnormalities for both the groups. Whilst the true reasons for these latter effects are unknown, it is likely that the damage was done during autopsy, as the techniques used for preparing the brains for analysis were crude by today's standards. Other sleep deprivation experiments of this era used rabbits, but again, few used control groups. Probably the best known was by another American, Dr W G Crile, who kept rabbits awake for 4-5 days.A slight rise in body temperature and a slowing of respiration were found, but no fall in red blood cells. Autopsies revealed changes to the liver and adrenal gland, as well as to the cerebral cortex. Although Crile could not explain these findings, again it is likely that the autopsy procedure was to blame. These early studies sim ply relied on the experimenters' claims that their animals remained awake, and it was not until the 1950s that advances in EEG recording techniques made it possible to measure whether the animal was truly asleep or awake.So until recent times, about the only way of making sure that the animal remained awake was to keep it continually moving, but this meant that one was now looking at the effects of physical activity plus sleep deprivation. To some extent the influence of the physical activity alone could be â€Å"subtracted† by giving the same amount of exercise to a control group allowed to sleep. However, it is possible that exercise interacts with sleep deprivation in a way not found in the control group, as for example, forced exercise when wanting to sleep may be more stressful to a sleep deprived animal than to a refreshed control animal.This is a problem that Kleitman readily acknowledged, even though he did use control groups. Nevertheless, this questioning about the impact of exercise may be rather theoretical, as it will be remembered that few of the early deprivation experiments which used exercise found any serious abnormality anyway – at least up to seven days wakefulness, although using the limited and rather crude methods for determining an animal's state of health. There is one more of the early sleep deprivation experiments that I must mention, carried out in 1946 by Drs J C R Licklider and M E Bunch, from Harvard and Washington Universities (2).Their first aim was to determine the least amount of sleep that laboratory rats could survive on, as usually these animals slept around 12 hours a day. Animals were kept awake by forced walking on a treadmill. Very much to the experimenters' credit, a variety of control groups were used. In an initial pilot experiment, animals were divided into four groups : no sleep, normal sleep, 8 hours sleep, and 4 hours sleep. They were kept like this for several weeks, or, as was to be the case for the totally sleep deprived group, until they died.This usually occurred after 3 – 14 days. To Licklider and Bunch's surprise, the four hour group seemed to survive â€Å"indefinitely†. The only finding of note was that these animals were extremely irritable and had to be handled with caution. Licklider and Bunch's next experiment, their major one, now looked in more detail at the effects of four hours sleep per day, but this time on young (adolescent) animals, particularly, at their rate of growth and learning ability. Control groups were again used.Although I will not go into details, suffice to say that these tried to clarify the effects of the exercise itself, and other potential problems. Animals from the experimental and control groups were still growing, and all had access to food all of the time. Measurements were taken for 10 – 18 weeks. However, within a few days from the start, the growth rates of the 4 hour sleepers began to fall behind those of the c ontrol groups, and after a further 50 days their body weights just levelled off whilst the others continued to grow.But according to the investigators the shortened sleepers seemed healthy enough, apart from irritability. Of great interest was that learning in these rats was certainly no worse than that of the control groups – even marginally better. The most sophisticated studies of sleep deprivation using EEG methods also pair together sleep deprived and control animals, so that when sleep onset occurs in the EEG of the sleep deprived animal, it is stimulated into wakefulness. The control animal is similarly stimulated irrespective of whether it is awake or asleep.Because both animals have similar circadian sleep and wake patterns, the likelihood of sleep is greater at certain times of the day, so whenever the sleep deprived animal is stimulated its partner may also be asleep. Consequently, the control animal also loses some sleep, but only about 20-30% of it, and is certai nly not totally sleep deprived. For both animals these laboratory procedures are stressfull, and it is assumed that because one animal has total sleep deprivation plus these stresses, and the other only partial sleep deprivation plus the stresses, any greater effects on the first animal are due to the larger sleep loss.These sophisticated studies are a great improvement on earlier ones where there was little or no control, but there is still the problem that the sleep deprived animal has a greater disruption to its lifestyle as well as to its sleep. To be stimulated into wakefulness from drowiness or sleep, as is the case for the sleep deprived animal, may be more stressing than to be stimulated whilst already awake, as is the likelihood for the control animal.Although none of these animal experiments can be perfect, of course, they do have the great advantage over the human studies in that more searching measurements can be done, and autopsies carried out afterwards. Apart from cha nges in behaviour, one of the best signs of stress in both animals and humans is a marked increase in the output of certain hormones from the adrenal glands, particularly adrenaline and the corticosteroids, with the most notable example of the latter being cortisol.Adrenaline (otherwise called â€Å"epinephrine†) is the main hormone produced in the core of the adrenals, the â€Å"medulla†, whereas the corticosteroids come from the outer layer, the â€Å"cortex†. Hence the more correct term for these latter hormones is the â€Å"adrenocorticosteroids†. Cortisol helps the body withstand stress by protecting various tissues against excess damage, for example, by reducing inflammation. It combats shock by making body energy reserves more available, and trying to ensure that the volume of the blood and blood pressure can be maintained.The number of red cells in the blood falls, as more are switched to a reserve store so that fewer cells would be lost during an y bleeding. For reasons that are not clear, it also depresses the immune system. Cortisol can affect the central nervous system and behaviour. Under non-stressful conditions cortisol is released in small amounts throughout the day, and has an obvious circadian rhythm, troughing at the beginning of a mammal's daily sleep period, and peaking around the start of wakefulness.However, rapid increases can occur within a short while of a stressor occurring, and may be maintained for many days as the adrenal gland can soon grow in size to produce more of the hormone. Eventually though, the gland becomes exhausted and the animal's ability to combat the stressing event fails. Death usually soon ensues. Whilst cortisol helps the organism to endure stress, especially if the animal is helpless and unable to avoid the underlying cause, adrenaline has a more rapid alerting effect, commonly called the â€Å"fight or flight† response, designed to help the animal quickly avoid the danger one w ay or another.Of the two hormones, adrenaline and cortisol, the sleep deprivation researcher usually prefers to measure the latter, because deprivation generally lasts for days, and this hormone is much easier to measure than is adrenaline. In the 1950s a Canadian, Dr Hans Selye, identified three phases in the cortisol response to stress: alarm, resistance and exhaustion (3), with the last one not usually occurring until many days have elapsed. Although Selye's interpretation is now thought to be too-simple an explanation for what is clearly a complex response, his approach is still reasonable for our purposes.Whilst injury and illness are major causes for the initial alarm response, it will also occur whenever the body is pushed to extremes, for example during heavy exercise or in very hot or cold environments. More importantly, psychological factors such as apprehension and fear are potent triggers for this hormone. These can substantially add to the effects of more physical stimu li such as injury. Whilst animals usually show rises in cortisol during sleep deprivation, this tends not to be the case with humans.We can be sleepy, irritable and have a great desire to sleep, but providing we know that no harm will be allowed to come to us, and that we can pull out of the experiment if necessary, then the deprivation will not necessarily be stressful. This suggests that some psychological factor in animals, such as fear, may be influencing their cortisol response to deprivation. It must be borne in mind that illness and tissue damage will also activate the alarm responses. So I cannot be clear about how much of the raised cortisol levels in sleep deprived animals is due to physical illness, fear alone, or fear as a result of the illness. . 2 Recent Animal Experiments The most elaborate sleep deprivation studies ever performed on animals are being run at the Chicago University Sleep Laboratory – a premier sleep laboratory established 25 years ago by Dr. All an Rechtschaffen, and still under his direction. Kleitman was also at Chicago University, but in another Department. He retired soon after Rechtschaffen's arrival, and his sleep laboratory closed down. Rechtschaffen's pioneering work along so many lines of sleep research has brought him a level of respect from sleep researchers that equals that accorded to Kleitman.Rechtschaffen and his team began their sleep deprivation experiments on rats in the early 1980s (4 – 8). Two main types of study were performed : (i) total sleep deprivation, and (ii) deprivation of REM sleep only. For each of these there were impressive control procedures using control animals. The centrepiece of this laboratory's equipment was the apparatus for sleep deprivation – a horizontal, circular rotating platform 45 centimeters in diameter, surrounded by shallow water. A vertical barrier divided the platform into halves, allowing a sleep deprived animal to be confined to one side, and a control ani mal to the other.The platform could rotate slowly under the barrier. When this occurred, both animals had to move to avoid being gently propelled into the surrounding water. As rats dislike getting wet they would do their best to avoid falling in. Each animal had its EEG continuously monitored by a computer. When sleep was detected in the rat to be deprived of sleep, the platform would promptly rotate, causing the animal to rouse and move along the platform. Its partner, which might be awake or asleep at the time, had to move likewise, and to the same extent.Generally, control animals lost about 26% of their sleep, compared with about 92% for the experimental group. Although this procedure was indeed stressful to sleep deprived animals, as shown by increases in adrenal gland weights and cortisol secretion, the control animals seemed to experience a similar amount of stress for most of the experimental period, as both these indices rose to similar extents in them as well. For REM sle ep deprivation alone, the platform only moved when REM sleep was detected.The technique was quite effective, as virtually all of REM sleep (99%) could be eliminated, whereas the control partner only lost about 4% of its REM sleep. Although the experimental animals were still able to take most of their non-REM sleep (which makes up about 88% of sleep in the rat), there was some unavoidable loss of the â€Å"deeper† form of non-REM sleep. This was a problem of some concern to the investigators, and I will come back to this later. For both types of sleep deprivation, experimental and control animals were under constant light, and food always available.The environmental temperature was set at what is neutral for the rat. Total sleep deprivation caused general debility, weight loss and death by about the 21st day. The control rats all survived the experience, although they became debilitated and lost weight to some extent. Post mortems were performed on all the animals. Examinatio ns were carried out on the brain, liver, kidneys, spleen, lungs, duodenum, stomach, thyroid and thymus, with the pathologists not being told from which group each animal had come. Surprisingly, no significant differences were found between the two groups for any of these organs.As the investigators pointed out, one of the remaining possibilities was that death may have been due to undetected biochemical abnormalities. So far though, there is no sign of what, if any, these might be. In the total sleep deprivation procedure, both experimental and control animals ate much more food, whilst also losing weight. However, these effects were far more apparent in the experimental group. Calculations by the investigators on the energy obtained from digested food and from breakdown of the animals' own body tissues, showed a very large rise in the energy usage, to around 2. times the baseline levels for the experimental group, and to 1. 7 times these values for the control group. It seemed that such increases were being used to fuel a large rise in metabolism. Although most of this energy need was coming from voracious eating, particularly in the experimental animals, the fall in body weight showed that the animals' own energy stores were being depleted. But this weight loss was probably not the cause of death in the sleep deprived animals, as at death their weight had only fallen to about 80% of the starting value.The investigators had shown that starved rats not sleep deprived can still survive at 70% of their original body weight. Sleep deprived animals were digesting their food normally, and there was no sign of diabetes or other illnesses that could account for weight loss and voracious eating. So what was happening to all this energy, and was it all going to fuel increased metabolism? The gland that has a major effect on metabolic rate is the thyroid, but its hormones showed no changes. Could â€Å"stress† still have an answer?There were no noticable differen ces in the size of the adrenal glands between the two groups for most of the time, from the start of the deprivation until the death of the sleep deprived animal. However, there was a rise in adrenal weight a few days before death. To try and determine the stress responses further, the investigators made more detailed analyses of blood samples from both groups of animals, every few days. Apart from the measurement of cortisol and other blood constituents, assessments were also made of the hormone that controls cortisol release – adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH).Both the sleep deprived and control groups showed similar rises in these two hormones, with no significant differences between the two groups for either substance. Except of course, for the few days prior to the death of the experimental animal, when there was a greater rise in cortisol. The other blood constituents showed no notable differences between the groups, except that the hormone noradrenaline (norepinephri ne) was far higher in the experimental animals. The exact reasons for this were not really known.This hormone has many interesting actions, with several relating to metabolism and the regulation of heat loss from the body. For example, it limits heat loss from the skin by restricting blood flow to skin capillaries, also, it makes body fat supplies more easily available as an energy source for other tissues. One important role for noradrenaline is to stimulate special heat producing organs called â€Å"brown adipose tissue† (BAT or â€Å"brown fat†) to burn up more energy for heat. However, this tissue is usually only found in infant animals and is gone by adulthood.It is not known if the rats used in the Chicago studies had any brown fat reserves. I shall cover the role of this tissue in more detail, in Section 8. 13. An important finding with the totally sleep deprived group was that body temperature fell during their last days, and this, together with the earlier inc reases in feeding and raised metabolism, suggests that something seriously happens to the ability of the animal to conserve its body heat – that is, its thermoregulation becomes impaired. This state of affairs was not so apparent in the control animals.What seems to be happening, although we cannot be certain, is that soon after sleep deprivation begins, experimental animals increasingly lose body heat, presumably through the skin, and compensate by burning more energy to increase metabolism and create more body heat. More and more food has to be eaten, but even this is not enough, as body energy reserves also have to be sacrificed on this metabolic fire. For the first two weeks, heat production matches heat loss, as body temperature stays normal.But then there is a deterioration, with heat loss exceeding heat production, and body temperature falls. Although death follows a few days later, it is not yet known whether this is due directly to the collapse of thermoregulation, o r just that this collapse is a symptom of something more subtle but nevertheless catastrophic, not yet understood. The control group did not reach this state, as their body temperature never fell, at least up to the time they were killed, when their experimental partners died.The physical appearances of the sleep deprived animals changed in a characteristic way, apart from the weight loss. After about a week of total sleep deprivation their hair developed a yellowish tinge and became matted. The skin of the tail and paws developed small red inflamed areas that eventually developed into often quite large lesions, very much like ulcers, but containing only a minor infection. These got worse as the deprivation progressed, and also began to appear in the control group, but at a slower rate of development.Surprisingly, all the animals seemed unconcerned about these sores and paid little attention to them. The lesions were only on the bare skin of the tail and feet, and were not found und er the fur. Careful examinations, by specialists in skin diseases, were made of the lesions, and it was concluded that these were not due to wetness, or pressure on the skin – they remain a puzzle. Although there are suspicions that a biochemical change in the skin may be the cause, perhaps even a vitamin deficiency, there is no evidence of this, despite careful chemical analyses.To see whether the animals were becoming debilitated from infections, blood was analysed to find out if the immune system was functioning normally. Immunology is a highly complex area (see Section 3. 8), and only a few tests could be performed. Nevertheless, such tests would have been discerning enough to pick up anything unusual going on – but nothing remarkable was found. In fact, the remarkable finding was that there was nothing unusual, given the animals' circumstances. What is happening to the sleep deprived rat – so many blanks have been drawn?All that we apparently have so far is what seems to be a problem with thermoregulation, and the skin lesions – neither of these seemed to be due to the animals getting wet through falling in the water, as this was also investigated. As far as can be seen, little else seems to be going wrong. Rechtschaffen and colleagues are cautious over speculating over their findings. Although they believe that heat loss and thermoregulation lie at the crux of the demise of their animals, they emphasise that more proof is required.This would, for example, come from careful measurements of metabolic rate, which so far have been difficult to carry out in the sleep deprivation apparatus. Usually, animals would be put inside a calorimiter (a chamber for measuring body heat production), but a sleep deprived animal quickly falls asleep here, and sleep alters metabolic rate. Nevertheless, I would like to concentrate on thermoregulation a little more as I believe it to be a crucial factor. Firstly, let me give some more background, be cause even the normal and healthy rat has potential problems with its thermoregulation.Like other small mammals it has a relatively large body surface area in proportion to its weight. Simple geometry shows that as body weight doubles, surface area only increases by about 60%. Keep on doubling size in this way until something of the mass of a human is produced, and the body surface becomes quite small in proportion to its weight. If there is any deterioration in the ability of the body surface to keep heat in, then this will become an increasing problem the smaller the mammal, with less body mass to generate heat in proportion to surface area. Body heat loss is less of a concern to humans than it is to rats, mainly ecause of our relatively large mass in proportion to surface area. But the animal usually has effective countermeasures – physiological and behavioural. Both are mostly aimed at protecting its more exposed body areas, the paws, and especially the large tail. Physio logically, blood flow to the skin is reduced here, and behaviourally, the animal can sit on its tail, or curl up into a ball. Now, it seems to be fairly certain that sleep deprived rats are losing a large amount of body heat, and presumably, a major potential route for this loss is through the tail and paws.Even though these animals are in a neutral environmental temperature, this is still below that of their body, and body heat can still be lost. Since food intake rises and weight falls as soon as deprivation begins, the apparent increase in heat loss seems to begin immediately. I suspect that a sleepy rat is less aware of this loss, and the animal may â€Å"forget† to sit on its tail to conserve body heat. It cannot curl up for long as the inevitable sleep and promp movement of the platform makes it wake up and walk. From what I have seen of sleep deprived rats, their tails are almost always exposed.If too much heat is being lost here, then one would expect the animal to pr otect its tail as much as possible – but sleep deprived rats are not doing this. They still have the physiological countermeasure, of reducing the blood flow to the skin of the tail and feet. Whether or not the eventual appearance of ulcers in these areas is related to the problems of thermoregulation, or is just a coincidence, is an open question. Perhaps a prolonged restricted blood supply to the skin of the tail and feet, lasting for a week or so, promotes skin ulcers?Enough of this speculation of mine, and let us return to some other fascinating findings from the Chicago Group. They had suspicions that the inevetable REM sleep loss during total sleep deprivation might have been a key factor in the deterioration of their animals, as REM sleep deprivaton alone, also led to death. But as the investigators noted, the difficulty with this idea is that death occurred much later during REM sleep deprivation, after an average of 37 days – almost twice as long as for totall y sleep deprived animals. REM sleep deprivation produced very similar ffects to total sleep deprivation, including the skin lesions, except that the course of events was spread over a longer time. Stress seemed slightly higher in the REM sleep deprived animals than in their control partners, as cortisol and ACTH levels were somewhat higher, but this was not really apparent until about the week before death. The most dramatic difference was again a large increase in food intake, which began soon after the REM sleep deprivaton started. Calculations of the energy used by the REM sleep deprived animals showed a massive 3. times rise over that of the pre-deprivation levels, against a 1. 9 rise for the control group. Body temperature stayed normal for the first two weeks of REM sleep deprivation and then fell, but always remained stable for the control animals. If REM sleep deprivation was the key to the death of the totally sleep deprived animals, why would REM sleep deprivation alone al low them to survive for twice as long? Maybe REM sleep deprivation is of little relevance after all! Instead, perhaps the fatal factor is not the type of sleep that is lost but the amount, of whatever type.Returning to my earlier line of thinking – the greater the sleep loss the more the sleepiness, and the greater the impairment to the behavioural countermeasures, etc. Remember, as REM sleep deprivation allows animals mo